The Seventh-day Adventist movement, officially incorporated in 1863, represents one of the most significant developments in 19th-century American religious history and phenomena. Its formation was intimately influenced by the fervent religious revivalism of the Second Great Awakening, characterized by an intense focus on biblical prophecy, personal piety, and the imminent return of Christ.
The Millerite Movement: The Foundation
The origins of the Seventh-day Adventist Church can be traced to the early 19th century and the teachings of William Miller, a Baptist preacher who gained prominence in the 1830s and 1840s. Miller gave particular focus to the books of Daniel and Revelation, and concluded that Christ’s second coming would occur around 1843–1844. He based his predictions on an interpretation of Daniel 8:14, which mentions “2,300 evenings and mornings.” Believing these days symbolized years, Miller calculated the timeline beginning with the decree to rebuild Jerusalem in 457 BCE.
Miller’s message resonated with thousands, and the “Millerite movement” grew rapidly across the northeastern United States. This movement emphasized repentance, a renewed commitment to Christian living, and readiness for the imminent return of Christ. However, the expected date of Christ’s return, initially set for March 21, 1844, and then adjusted to October 22, 1844, passed without incident. This event, known as the “Great Disappointment,” left many Millerites disillusioned, while others sought to reinterpret the beliefs.
Post-Disappointment Reorganization
In the aftermath of the Great Disappointment, the Millerite movement fractured into several groups. Among these, a small contingent began to reexamine the biblical prophecies. This group concluded that Miller’s calculations were correct in terms of timing but misunderstood the nature of the event. Instead of Christ’s physical return, they believed that October 22, 1844, marked the beginning of Christ’s work in the heavenly sanctuary—a doctrine now central to Adventist theology.
This reinterpretation, known as the “Investigative Judgment,” was developed by individuals such as Hiram Edson, who claimed to have received divine insight while meditating on the Great Disappointment. Edson and his contemporaries argued that Christ had entered the Most Holy Place in the heavenly sanctuary to begin a final phase of atonement, cleansing the sanctuary of the sins of humanity.
The Sabbath Doctrine and Doctrinal Formation
Simultaneously, another key element of Seventh-day Adventism emerged: the observance of the seventh day Sabbath. This doctrine was championed by Joseph Bates, a former sea captain and committed Millerite. Bates was influenced by Seventh Day Baptists, who maintained the Sabbath as a central practice. He published a pamphlet in 1846 advocating for Sabbath observance, which caught the attention of James and Ellen White.
Ellen Harmon (later White), a young woman who experienced visions she attributed to divine inspiration, became a prominent leader and spiritual guide. Her visions confirmed and expanded upon the group’s developing theological framework, including the Sabbath doctrine and the Investigative Judgment. Ellen’s future husband, James White, played a critical role in organizing and publishing the movement’s beliefs, founding periodicals such as The Advent Review and Sabbath Herald to disseminate their message.
Early Organizational Efforts
By the late 1840s and 1850s, the loosely organized Adventist groups began to coalesce. The “Sabbatarian Adventists,” as they were often called, emphasized biblical literalism, personal holiness, and the imminent second coming. They also sought to distinguish themselves from other Millerite offshoots by formalizing their beliefs and practices—something they were initially against doing.
Conferences and meetings helped unify the Sabbatarian Adventists, providing a platform to discuss theology and strategy. The publication of A Declaration of the Fundamental Principles Taught and Practiced by the Seventh-day Adventists in 1854 was a key step toward formal incorporation. This document outlined core beliefs, including the Sabbath, the sanctuary doctrine, and the prophetic gift manifested in Ellen White.
Incorporation in 1863
As the movement grew, its leaders recognized the need for formal organization to manage its expanding operations and resources. James White spearheaded efforts to establish a denominational structure that could support publishing ventures, coordinate evangelism, and provide for the growing number of ministers.
On May 21, 1863, representatives from various Adventist congregations convened in Battle Creek, Michigan, to officially incorporate the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The General Conference was established as the governing body, with John Byington elected as its first president. The church’s incorporation marked a significant milestone, providing the organizational framework necessary for its mission to proselytize the world.
